Integrity, in engineering, is a term associated with design, assurance, and verification functions that ensure a product, process, or system meets its appropriate and intended requirements. Integrity Management can be understood as the discipline of applying scientific, mathematical and practical knowledge to these ends. Dubán can advise and lead on the range of assets integrity management requirements.
This article considers integrity management under three main headings; asset integrity management, inspection and testing and standards
1 Asset Integrity Management
1.1 Asset Integrity Management Systems
1.2 Asset Integrity Management Plans, Policies and Processes
1.3 Risk Based Analyses
1.4 Equipment Degradation Mechanisms
1.5 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
2 Inspection and Testing
2.1 Inspection
2.1.1 Visual Inspection
2.1.2 Photomosaic
2.1.3 Photogrammetry
2.1.4 Coatings
2.1.5 Corrosion
2.2 NDT
2.2.1 Surface-breaking Cracks
2.2.2 Plate Integrity
2.2.3 Radiography
2.3 Testing
2.3.1 Cathodic Protection
2.3.2 Intelligent Pigging
2.3.3 Low Specific Activity Scale
2.3.4 Positive Material Identification (PMI)
2.3.5 Destructive Testing
2.3.6 Hydrostatic Testing
2.3.7 Load Testing
3 Standards
3.1 API
3.2 ASME
3.3 ASNT
3.4 PCN
3.5 CSWIP
3.6 NACE
1 Asset Integrity Management
A well-managed engineering integrity programme helps operators identify and reduce safety risks at an earlier stage, before any escalation. A focus on asset integrity can enhance operational improvement and can extend the life of ageing assets.Engineering integrity management coordinates efficient and cost effective implementation of inspections and integrity programs, designed to ensure integrity of plant facilities onshore and offshore structures, pipelines, stationary equipment, piping systems et cetera.
Engineering integrity management develops or conducts
- Integrity management policy. The policy encompasses verification, facilities (basic repair methods and strategies / static equipment repair and temporary repairs, fabric maintenance), corrosion engineering, inspection engineering, chemical management and maintenance management
- Integrity Management Plans
- Risk Based Assessment analyses
- Integrity processes. The processes encompass Risk Based Inspection (RBI) methodologies, temporary repair methodologies, maintenance strategies, Mechanical Integrity Management Strategy (MIMS), Structural Integrity Management Strategy (SIMS), Pipeline Integrity Management Strategy (PIMS) and the plant process
- Verification schemes. The schemes can encompass performance, standards management
- Fitness-for-service reviews
- Extension of facility/plant life studies
1.1 Asset Integrity Management Systems
Asset Integrity Management Systems (AIMS) centre on asset continuing suitability-for-required-function monitoring while also assuring that the duties of the organisation, in respect of its assets, can be upheld. By [1] protecting health, safety and the environment. And by [2] providing that the people, systems, processes and resources, required to deliver integrity, are in place, in use and will perform during the whole lifecycle of the asset.
An Integrity Management System should be designed to serve as fit-for-that-required-purpose at each asset life cycle stage encompassing design, maintenance and decommissioning. A proper AIMS plans inspections, auditing/assurance and overall quality processes; and should endeavour to maintain each asset in a fit-for-service condition while extending its life in the most reliable, safe, and cost-effective manner. Design of AIMS programmes must take a great many parameters into account.
- Construction codes
- Inspection and repair techniques
- Mechanics of materials
- Degradation mechanisms
- Stress analysis
1.2 Asset Integrity Management Plans, Policies and Processes
Asset integrity, safety, and reliability are major concerns to all owners, operators and duty holders. Alongside regulatory and adopted requirements, operators of facilities and pipelines have a number of needs in respect of equipment
- Maximising production
- Reducing lost income due to unplanned shutdowns
- Optimising inspection and maintenance costs
- Maximising asset value
- Maintaining an auditable system
Asset integrity management plans, policies and processes will be formulated with these requirements and the obligations of the organisation in mind.
Integrity management system audit sets out to prove that the system is compliant, transparent, effective and efficient. American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice API 580 specifies integrity management system audit as part of a risk based inspection programme. The audit tests efficiency and cost effectiveness of implementation of inspections and integrity programmes that are being carried out. Such audits may be approached under the ISO 19011 framework.
1.3 Risk Based Analyses
Risk-based inspection is an approach to Asset Integrity Management which seeks to optimise inspection activities based on the likelihood and consequence of failure of components and systems. Using this methodology, inspection frequency is highest for the highest risk systems, and the interval between inspections is lengthened for those systems which have the lowest risk.
In a typical RBI project
- Qualitative or quantitative risk-ranking level of existing equipment is determined. The risk acceptance level based on standard industry practice and customer defined criteria is defined
- Process operations which impact production, mechanical integrity, and rates of corrosion or degradation are assessed
- Technical specifications and materials of construction information are collated and studied. Gap analysis and recommendations drawn up in the light of any findings
- Risks associated with equipment degradation and corrosion rates are identified using industry standards, such as API 580, API 579, and API 581
- Remaining life for each component is determined and used to determine the appropriate inspection intervals
- Inspection and maintenance tasks and intervals are specified based on the risk profiles
1.4 Equipment Degradation Mechanisms
Damage mechanisms for equipment including pressure vessels, pressure piping, storage tanks, heat exchangers, heaters, and specialised equipment can be defined. Determination of degradation mechanisms can be performed during design, in-service, or subsequent to a failure episode. Investigation of root causes of industrial accidents can resort to degradation mechanism determination. Support services for identification of fixed equipment degradation mechanisms include
- Identifying degradation devices effecting the reliability of fixed equipment
- Recommending acceptable criteria for degradation devices to become effective
- Recommending lean inspection strategies, inspection plans and critical inspection locations
- Identifying internal as well as external corrosion ranges
- Defining effect of high temperature and erosion
- Preparing detailed reports describing type of degradation mechanisms, effect of degradation mechanisms, process streams, mass balance et cetera
- Identifying active and accurate degradation mechanisms for implementation in risk-based inspection and fitness for service
1.5 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Strictly, Finite element method (FEA), in mathematics is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions to boundary value problems. It uses variational methods (the calculus of variations) to minimise an error function and produce a stable solution. In engineering FEA solves for complex elasticity and structural analysis problems and can be used for equipment assessment. FEA for equipment assessment can
- Develop 2D and 3D models of pressure vessel and piping systems
- Analyse external loads on nozzles
- Evaluate load cases that contribute to failure in piping and pressure vessel components
- Derive linear, material non-linear, steady state transient thermal or stress stiffening solutions
- Compare the results with acceptance criteria listed in ASME Sec VIII Div I and II
- Perform fatigue calculations for piping and pressure vessels
2 Inspection and Testing
2.1 Inspection
Distinction between audits and inspections is often made. Audits can be considered as evaluating organisation, system, process, project or production line against certain specifications, requirements, instructions, procedures or so on. Inspection might be considered as an evaluation or assessment on products or assets against certain definite data requirements; inspections involve measurements or tests of the product or asset to meet the specified requirements and standard.
2.1.1 Visual Inspection
Much of inspection relies on visual examination of the subject. Close, systematic visual inspection, with or without imagery dataset retention, can form the substance of much inspection activity. Knowledge of subject model condition and its characteristic flaws or deterioration mechanism inform proper inspection.
Requirements for inspection method and outcomes must be defined in advance of any works. The inspection subject may be stripped of coating, growth, flakes et cetera for examination by competent personnel. Personnel qualified under the PCN, CSWIP or similar schemes can complete forms generated by reference to API, ASME or NACE or similar standards. Visual inspection of remote locations subsea or in restricted access locations may be performed by diver inspectors or using boroscopes or remotely operated vehicles. Requirements for inspection data and imagery management can be determined by reference to DAMA-DMBOK, ISO/IEC 13249-1:2007 or similar schemes.
2.1.2 Photomosaic
Photomosaics of welds or areas of deterioration can be a useful tool for monitoring crack/fracture propagation. A mosaic of still images complete with reference/scale markers with, say, 40% overlap, acquired periodically at an area of interest, yields useful integrity information.
Certain considerations in respect of image quality and photographic equipment parameters are important.
2.1.3 Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from photographic images. Simply, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the photographic image plane can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the scale (s) of the image is known. This is done by multiplying the measured distance by 1/s.
Photogrammetry can be used to measure deformity, misalignment or ovality of engineering elements. Engineering elements will be fitted with (magnetic) scalebars/reflective targets and imaged from a number of standpoints using a full-frame digital single-lens reflex camera. By processing the photogrammetry imagery by least squares computations, solving the interior orientation parameters, the cameras and relative target positions, when the photographs were taken, are determined in a step called triangulation. Once the images are triangulated, image pairs may be viewed in stereo and 3D measurements can be made. The SICAMS photogrammetry metrology system can be employed for subsea photgrammetry. The SICAMS system is capable of an accuracy between 1/5000 and 1/10000 of the distance surveyed (the accuracy for any point measured to artificial targets is between 1mm and 2mm in 10m).
2.1.4 Coatings
Coatings work by providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between the environment and the structural material. Galvanisation, plating, painting and the application of enamel are amongst the most common anti-corrosion treatments. Coatings inspection, performed by competent personnel qualified under the BGAS or similar schemes, compares current material condition against model condition. A great many coatings types are in use in the upstream offshore sector including coal tar enamels, hot-applied tapes, cold-applied laminate tapes, grease based tapes, self-adhesive overwrap tapes, polyethylene cladding, fillers, mastics and putties, heat shrinkable plastics, powder coatings, urethane MCLs and concrete. Certain of the coatings are applied on the internal parts of vessels or pipework.
2.1.5 Corrrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of material, usually metals, by chemical reaction with its environment. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance and permeability to liquids and gases.
Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as passivation (micro-coat shielding) and conversion coating, can increase a material’s corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.
A 1976 study reckoned the overall annual cost of metallic corrosion to the US economy was USD$70 billion, or 4.2% of the gross national product.
A range of corrosion resistant materials (including Cr-Ni-Mo alloys and carbon steel plus inhibitors) are in existence. Corrosion of a metal surface can be controlled by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell using a technique known as Cathodic Protection (CP).
2.2 NDT
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a group of analysis techniques used to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without destroying or damaging the subject material. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic and electro-magnetic testing techniques. Dubán can advise and lead on the range of NDT requirements.
2.3.1 Surface-breaking Cracks
NDT for surface-breaking cracks can employ a number of techniques
- Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) detects surface and subsurface defects for contrasted visual inspection
- Electro-magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT) including the Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) technique
- Penetrant Testing (PT) Detects surface defects with contrasted visual inspection
ACFM and MPI can often be used in combination. ACFM is quicker, requires less surface cleaning and yields an electronic record of the inspection passes which are available for review and discussion offline. The physical traces observable during MPI aid better results when performing remedial grinding of cracks.
2.3.2 Plate Integrity
NDT for plate integrity commonly employs ultrasonic sound waves for detection of corrosion damage including pitting and loss of wall thickness
Ultrasonic NDT techniques use the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as it passes through the material under inspection for detection of features-of-interest.
The ultrasonic wave is a stress pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and the reflected wave will give information about the length of the wave’s path through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be measured and the presence of flaws can be detected.
The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is from 20 kHz up to approximately 6 MHz. Lower frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 MHz are used for testing materials with very large grain structures such as concrete or cast iron. Frequencies from 2 to 6 MHz are used for testing materials with fine grain structures for inspecting the integrity and residual stress of plate including steels.
Ultrasonic transducers may be arranged as an array and yield mapping information of the interior of the subject e.g. a transducer array based on sixteen elements can be employed to evaluate the size of a corrosion defect quantitatively.
The reliability and flexibility, in respect of utility, of ultrasonic NDT techniques make the technique useful for a range of applications.
2.3.3 Radiography
Radiographic Testing (RT) is a NDT method for inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. A radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137) can be used as a source of photons. Radiography yields a permanent hardcopy scalable record of testing. Radiography is best at recording volumetric, as distict form planar, defects.
Use of radiographic material and equipment and employment of radiographic personnel come with significant management challenges.
2.3 Testing
Dubán can advise and lead in a very wide range of materials testing techniques.
2.3.1 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. The simplest method to apply CP is by connecting the metal to be protected with a piece of another more easily corroded sacrificial metal to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal.
For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver enough current to provide complete protection. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC power source, often a rectifier from a local AC system. In the absence of an AC supply, alternative power sources may be used, such as solar panels, wind power or gas powered thermoelectric generators.
Electrochemical corrosion potential is measured with reference electrodes. Copper-copper sulphate electrodes are used for structures in contact with soil or fresh water. Silver chloride electrodes or saturated calomel electrodes (SCE) are used for seawater applications.
Direct Current Voltage Gradient and is a survey technique used for assessing the effectiveness of corrosion protection on buried steel structures. In particular, oil and natural gas pipelines are routinely monitored using this technique to help locate coating faults and highlight deficiencies in their cathodic protection (CP) strategies.
2.3.2 Intelligent Pigging
Pigging, in the context of pipelines, refers to the practice of using pipeline inspection gauges or pigs to perform various maintenance operations on a pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a pig launcher (a funnel shaped Y section in the pipeline). The launcher is closed and the pressurised flow inside the pipeline is used to push the pig along down the pipe until it reaches the receiving trap – the pig catcher.
An intelligent pig includes electronics and sensors that collects various forms of data during the trip through the pipeline. Surface pitting and corrosion, as well as cracks and weld defects in steel/ferrous pipelines can be detected using magnetic flux leakage (MFL) pigs. Caliper pigs can measure ovality / roundness of the pipeline to determine areas of crushing or other deformations. An intelligent pig can be fitted with instrumentation that can record their movement during the trip. Such intsrumets include gyroscope-assisted tilt sensors, odometers and other technologies. The pig will record positional data so that the distance it moves along with any bends can be interpreted later to determine the path taken.
2.3.3 Low Specific Activity Scale
LSA scale (Low Specific Activity scale) is a radioactive deposit inside pipes and other production equipment and is composed primarily of insoluble barium, calcium, and strontium compounds as well as co-precipitated radium. LSA scale is a type of NORM – Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material.
The compounds that comprise LSA scale precipitate from the produced water due to changes in temperature and pressure. Radium is chemically similar to these elements and as a result is incorporated into the scales. Concentrations of Radium-226 (Ra-226) are generally higher than those of Ra-228.
Scales are normally found on the inside of piping and tubing. The API found that the highest concentrations of radioactivity are in the scale in wellhead piping and in production piping near the wellhead. Concentrations were as high as tens of thousands of picocuries per gram. However, the largest volumes of scale occur in three areas
- Water lines associated with separators
- Heater treaters
- Gas dehydrators
Chemical scale inhibitors may be applied to the piping complexes to prevent scales from slowing the oil extraction process. Under certain conditions the radiation can remain in solution and eventually be passed on to the produced waters.
Approximately 100 tons of scale per oil well are generated annually in the United States. As the oil in a reservoir dwindles and more water is pumped out with the oil, the amount of scale increases. In some cases brine is introduced into the formation to enhance recovery; this also increases scale formation. The average radium concentration in scale has been estimated to be 480 pCi/g. It can be much higher (as high as 400,000 pCi/g) or lower depending on regional geology.
Testing for LSA scale can acquire direct measurement in situ using e.g. for alpha/beta radiation, uncompensated Geiger-Mueller tube or e.g. for gamma radiation, sodium-iodide scintillation detector or samples can be collected for laboratory radiometric analysis.
2.3.4 Positive Material Identification (PMI)
Positive Material Identification (PMI) is the analysis of a metallic alloy to establish composition by reading the quantities by percentage of its constituent elements. Typical methods for PMI include x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectrometry (OES).
XRF is the emission of characteristic secondary (or fluorescent) x-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. When materials are exposed to short-wavelength x-rays or to gamma rays, ionization of their component atoms may take place. x-rays and gamma rays can be energetic enough to expel tightly held electrons from the inner orbitals of the atom. The removal of an electron in this way renders the electronic structure of the atom unstable, and electrons in higher orbitals fall into the lower orbital to fill the hole left behind. In falling, energy is released in the form of a photon, the energy of which is equal to the energy difference of the two orbitals involved. Thus, the material emits radiation, which has energy characteristic of the atoms present.
Optical emission spectrometry (OES)/Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a method of chemical analysis that uses the intensity of light emitted from a flame, plasma, arc, or spark at a particular wavelength to determine the quantity of an element in a sample. The wavelength of the atomic spectral line gives the identity of the element while the intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the number of atoms of the element.
2.3.5 Destructive Testing
Destructive testing is carried out, in order to understand a specimen’s structural performance or material behaviour under different loads, by subjecting the test specimen to its failure. Destructive tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than non-destructive testing.
Numerous destructive testing techniques, including testing for hardness, stress/fatigue, ductility et cetera are employed in structural engineering. Trials including destructive testing of materials can often be included in the project phase before fieldwork.
2.3.6 Hydrostatic Testing
Hydrostatic testing is for strength and leaks of pressure vessels such as pipelines, plumbing, gas cylinders, boilers and fuel tanks. Testing involves filling the vessel or pipe system with a liquid, usually water, which may be dyed to aid in visual leak detection, and pressurisation of the vessel to the specified test pressure. Pressure tightness can be tested by shutting off the supply valve and observing whether there is a pressure loss.
The test pressure is always considerably higher than the operating pressure to give a margin for safety. This margin of safety is typically 166.66%, 143% or 150% of the designed pressure, depending on the regulations that apply. For example, if a cylinder was rated to DOT-2015 PSI (approximately 139 bar), it would be tested at around 3360 PSI (approximately 232 bar). Water is commonly used because it is nearly incompressible, therefore requiring relatively little work to develop a high pressure, and is therefore also only able to release a small amount of energy in case of a failure – only a small volume will escape under high pressure if the container fails.
Hydrotesting of pipes, pipelines and vessels is performed to expose defective materials that have missed prior detection, ensure that any remaining defects are insignificant enough to allow operation at design pressures, expose possible leaks and serve as a final validation of the integrity of the constructed system. ASME B31.3 requires this testing to ensure tightness and strength.
Test pressures need not exceed a value that would produce a stress higher than yield stress at test temperature. ASME B31.3 section 345.4.2 (c) Other codes require a more onerous approach. BS PD 8010-2 requires testing to 150% of the design pressure – which should not be less than the MAOP plus surge and other incidental effects that will occur during normal operation. Leak testing is performed by balancing changes in the measured pressure in the test section against the theoretical pressure changes calculated from changes in the measured temperature of the test section.
2.3.7 Load Testing
The purpose of a mechanical load test is to verify that all the component parts of a structure including materials, base-fixings are fit-for-task and loading it is designed for. The Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulation 1992 UK states that load testing is undertaken before certain equipment is put into service for the first time. Load testing for integrity of welds for fitness-for-purpose and seafastness is performed on structures and supports mobilised onboard vessels for upstream offshore projects.
Load testing can be either Performance,Static or Dynamic. Performance testing applies a safe working load (SWL), or other specified load, for a designated time in a governing test method, specification, or contract. Static testing is when a load at a factor above the SWL is applied. The item is not operated through all configurations as it is not a requirement of this test. Dynamic testing is when a load at a factor above the SWL is applied. The item is then operated fully through all configurations and motions.
Under the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 UK load testing after the initial test is required if a major component is replaced, if the item is moved from one location to another or otherwise as necessary. Metal weights or water loads may be employed during load testing. Safety critical welds are subjects of NDT after loadtesting.
3 Standards
Dubán can advise on the implications of the large number of assets integrity management standards in existence today. And provide solutions for better customer satisfaction, more rigorous programmes and better and more programme outcomes.
3.1 API
American Petroleum Institute (API) standards are leading equipment and operating standards for the oil and natural gas industry. The publications, technical standards, and electronic and online products produced by API are designed, to help users improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of their operations, comply with legislative and regulatory requirements, and safeguard health, ensure safety, and protect the environment.
There are many API standards in existence including
- Pressure Vessel Inspection (API 510)
- Pressure Piping Inspection (API 570)
- Pressure Relief Systems (API 520/526)
- Tank Evaluations (API 650/653)
- Risk-Based Inspection (API 580/581)
- Fitness-for-Service (API 579)
- Damage Mechanisms (API 571)
3.2 ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) produces approximately 600 codes and standards, covering many technical areas, such as boiler components, elevators, measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits, cranes, hand tools, fasteners, and machine tools.
The largest ASME standard, both in size and in the number of volunteers involved in its preparation, is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). BPVC is a standard that provides rules for the design, fabrication, and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels.
ASME Performance Test Codes (PTCs) provide uniform rules and procedures for the planning, preparation,execution, and reporting of performance test results. Test results provide numerical characteristics to the performance of equipment, systems, and plants being tested.
3.3 ASNT
American Standard for Non-destructive Testing is accredited as a third-party certification body by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
There are four ASNT certification programs
- ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP)
- ASNT NDT Level II program
- ASNT NDT Level III Program
- Industrial Radiography and Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) program
The purpose of the ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP) is to provide the NDT industry with personnel who have achieved a high standard of NDT qualifications by examination, and independent, transportable NDT certifications. ACCP Professional Level III certification meets the requirements of ISO 9712 Level III certification.
The ASNT NDT Level II certification program was developed to provide standardised Level II written examinations that employers may use to satisfy the general and specific examination guidelines of paragraphs 8.3 and 8.4, respectively, of Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
The ASNT NDT Level III program provides third-party certification for non-destructive testing (NDT) or predictive maintenance (PdM) personnel whose specific jobs require knowledge of the technical principles underlying the non-destructive tests they perform, witness, monitor or evaluate. The program provides a system for ASNT NDT Level III certification in NDT and PdM in accordance with Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
The Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) program provides third-party radiation safety certification that meets the certification requirements of both Title 10 Part 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations (10CFR34), and the Suggested State Regulations for Control of Radiation (SSRCR, Part E,Radiation Safety Requirements for Industrial Radiographic Operations).
3.4 PCN
Personnel certification in NDT Scheme is an international programme for the certification of competence of non-destructive testing personnel which satisfies the requirements of a number of European and international standards.
The Council of the British Institute of NDT constitutes a Certification Management Committee and delegates to the CMC the responsibility for maintaining a management overview of the operations of its Certification Services Division.
PCN Scheme examinations are relevant in a number of areas
- Castings
- Welds
- Wrought Products and Forgings
- Pre and in-service Inspection (multi-sector)
- Railway (multi-sector)
Under the scheme
- PCN Level 1 Personnel are qualified to carry out NDT operations according to written instructions under the supervision of Appropriately Qualified Level 2 or Level 3 Personnel
- PCN Level 2 Personnel have demonstrated competence to perform and supervise non-destructive testing according to established or recognised procedures including selection of the NDT technique
- PCN Level 3 Personnel are qualified to direct any NDT operation for which they are certified, provide guidance and supervision at all levels and other competencies including establishing or reviewing for editorial and technical correctness NDT instructions and procedures and validation of NDT instructions and procedures
3.5 CSWIP
The Certification Scheme for Welding Inspection Personnel examines and qualifies unsing the system administered by the Certification Management Board of TWI, headquartered at Abington, Cambridgeshire, UK. The scheme examines and validates competency of welding inspectors, supervisors and instructors, welding quality control personnel, plant inspectors, underwater inspection personnel and NDT personnel.
3.6 NACE
NACE International (formerly known as the National Association of Corrosion Engineers) is a professional organisation for the corrosion control industry.
NACE standard are accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Approximately 100 standards cover subjects such as laboratory corrosion testing, corrosion prevention and blast cleaning. NACE defines standards in respect of practices (the NACE standard practices (SPs)), materials and testing methods.